The idea of a “rape culture” was most likely first introduced in the 1970’s by feminist scholars and criminologists who were attempting to demonstrate how societal beliefs and attitudes contributed to violence against women.
This includes things such as how the media portrays women and violence against women e.g., often, when rape is portrayed in the movies the perpetrators, are shown as being sadistic, lower-class individuals who target children as well as vulnerable women . This doesn’t reflect the reality of rape, where those targeted are more likely to be assaulted by someone they know rather than a psychologically disturbed stranger.
“Rape Culture” is also founded upon many common rape myths, such as making those who are victimized somewhat responsible and to blame for their own assaults e.g., if a survivor of a sexual assault had been dressed differently, hadn’t been so intoxicated, and/or hadn’t gone to a particular place at a certain time then they wouldn’t have been attacked etc.
The idea that provides the foundation for such myths, is that rape is primarily a crime motivated by sex (rather than power and control), and that men are unable to control their sexual urges when confronted with a woman they find physically and sexually attractive i.e., men cannot help themselves and/or be blamed for raping or sexually assaulting women.
This underlying idea, permeates many attitudes and beliefs that society has around masculinity and femininity, and reinforces many stereotypes concerning gender roles, that contribute to creating a “Rape Culture” e.g., that women are submissive individuals who should make themselves sexually available to men etc.
Although the idea of “Rape Culture” extends across all of society there are certain sub-groups where such cultures may be more prevalent and manifest themselves more openly and explicitly. In 2017, many women (more than 80) came forward and made accusations of sexual harassment, assault and rape against Harvey Weinstein, a Hollywood producer (and co-founder of Miramax), who had produced a number of critically acclaimed films, including, “Pulp Fiction”, and “Good Will Hunting”.
These allegations led to a large number of other women coming forward and accusing other powerful Hollywood men of similar offenses, including Les Moonves (who resigned from CBS in 2018, due to the allegations), the producer/director Brett Ratner (who continues to deny the accusations), and the comedian/producer Louis C.K. (who apologized for his actions and behaviors).
These events contributed to the #MeToo movement gaining momentum in 2017. In 2020, Weinstein was found guilty of a number of the charges brought against him and is currently serving a 23-year prison sentence. The #MeToo movement exposed a culture of toxic masculinity, and male sexual entitlement within the entertainment industry, which normalized sexual harassment, exploitation, and rape i.e., a rape culture.
Other sub-groups which may actively/overtly promote rape cultures are certain U.S. fraternities and university sports teams, whose members are given/develop a sense of sexual entitlement, over their fellow female students.
Fraternities and male sports teams are not inherently guilty of promoting a rape culture on university campuses, however as male organizations, they are sometimes at risk of promoting ideas around gender inequalities and stereotypes, that inform and reinforce harmful attitudes around ideas/beliefs concerning accountability, power, and control in relation to sex.
At Yale University, in 2011, the DKE (Delta Kappa Epsilon) fraternity received a 5-year ban from the university after it was discovered that pledges (prospective members) were instructed to engage in chants that promoted rape and sexual assault.
A 2014, Rolling Stone article - which was later retracted - alleging a gang rape involving members of PKP (Phi Kappa Psi), shone a spotlight on the fraternity, that led to the University of Virginia, suspending the group for several years, due to further allegations of sexual misconduct and hazing.
In 2015, a video emerged of members of SAE (Sigma Alpha Epsilon), at the university of Oklahoma, engaging in racist and sexist chants, resulting in the chapter being shut down by both its national parent organization and the university.
At both the University of Montana (2012) and Baylor University, in Waco, Texas (2016), investigations found that their football teams/programs, had actively covered up a number of rapes and sexual assaults, and discouraged those who had been victimized from coming forward, creating a culture and environment that normalized sexual misconduct i.e., a rape culture.
Whilst it would be incorrect to label all men who work in Hollywood as being misogynistic, and promoting sexual stereotyping etc., the #MeToo movement showed that many men in positions of power, in the entertainment industry, exploited that power for sexual gain, control, and power, and although fraternities and sports teams at universities are not inherently bad, certain members were not held accountable for their sexual misconduct.
These microcosms of extreme “Rape Culture”, demonstrate many of the beliefs and attitudes that are pervasive in society at large.
In the next section we will look at the history and some of the parts/components that make up and contribute to “rape culture”.